The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) put forth numerous political slogans and propaganda during its establishment and early revolutionary period. These slogans initially garnered support but were later revealed to be lies or promises left unfulfilled. Here are some typical examples:

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1. "Overthrow the local tyrants, distribute the land"

"Overthrow the local tyrants, distribute the land" was a key propaganda slogan of the CCP during the Agrarian Revolutionary War, aimed at attracting peasant support for the revolution. Its core promise was to enable peasants to obtain land through land reform, thereby achieving economic equality and prosperity. This slogan was first established as the core content of the land revolution after the "August 7th Meeting" in 1927, marking a clear direction for the CCP's land policy.

• Core Appeal: Eliminate the landlord class and equally distribute land.

• Propaganda Goal: Unite and inspire the broad masses of peasants, attracting them to join the revolutionary ranks and support the CCP regime.

Reality

In the early stages of land reform, peasants did receive some land, but this "land ownership" was only temporary. In subsequent policy shifts, these promises were gradually abandoned:

• Land Collectivization: In the early 1950s, through steps like "mutual aid teams," "lower-stage cooperatives," and "higher-stage cooperatives," the CCP gradually collectivized the land distributed to peasants. Peasants' ownership of land was stripped away, and the land was incorporated into production cooperatives.

• Land Nationalization: During the People's Commune movement, land was completely nationalized. Peasants became part of the collective economy, completely losing their right to independent management.

• Economic Consequences: Under the influence of ultra-leftist policies like the "Great Leap Forward," agricultural production efficiency plummeted, and agricultural resources were used without restraint, leading to famine and economic collapse. Tens of millions of peasants died during the "three years of natural disasters" (Great Famine). They not only failed to enjoy the fruits of the land revolution but instead fell into deeper poverty and despair.

Evaluation

"Overthrow the local tyrants, distribute the land" was a highly attractive slogan in propaganda. However, in practice, peasants never truly enjoyed ownership or the benefits of the land. This superficial revolutionary achievement ultimately served collectivization and the concentration of state power. The consequences of land reform stood in stark contrast to the initial promises, not only undermining the vitality of the rural economy but also deepening peasants' poverty and dependency.

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2. "The working class are the masters of the country"

"The working class are the masters of the country" was one of the core political propaganda slogans put forth by the CCP before and after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, aiming to emphasize the creation of a socialist society led by the working class. In propaganda, the working class was portrayed as the masters of the country, enjoying the right to manage state affairs, with a significant improvement in their quality of life.

• Core Ideology: The working class, as the vanguard of the proletariat, would lead the entire society towards socialism and communism.

• Propaganda Goal: Attract the working class to support the CCP revolution and contribute to the industrialization of New China.

Reality

Although the CCP claimed in its propaganda that workers were the masters of the country, the actual situation after the founding of the PRC was vastly different.

• Trade Unions Controlled by the Government

• Lack of Autonomy: Trade unions were supposed to be institutions for workers to protect their rights. However, the trade unions established by the CCP were entirely controlled by the government, primarily tasked with mobilizing workers to meet production targets rather than defending workers' rights.

• No Bargaining Power: Workers could not negotiate wages, working conditions, or other core issues with enterprises or the government through trade unions, severely weakening their rights.

• Highly Controlled Workforce

• Hukou System: Workers were strictly confined to cities. The urban-rural dual household registration system deprived workers of the right to free movement, making them appendages to urban industrialization.

• Political Suppression: Although the working class was proclaimed the "leading class," any independent workers' organizations were seen as a threat and suppressed. In the 1960s, some workers who attempted to express dissatisfaction were persecuted under the charge of "counter-revolutionaries."

• Impact of Reform and Opening Up

• Mass Layoffs and Unemployment: After the Reform and Opening Up, numerous state-owned enterprises were restructured or went bankrupt, making the working class the biggest victim of the unemployment wave. Many workers lost their economic sources and social security after being laid off.

• Further Weakening of Rights: In market-oriented reforms, the labor contract system replaced the original "iron rice bowl" system. However, the lack of sound legal and social security systems made it more difficult for workers to defend their rights.

• Decline in Income and Status

• Widening Income Gap: Urban workers' income growth lagged far behind other groups, especially the elite class composed mainly of officials and private entrepreneurs after the Reform and Opening Up. The economic status of the working class significantly declined.

• Deterioration of Working Conditions: Workers endured long-term, high-intensity labor, with many lacking medical insurance or retirement benefits. Their living conditions did not see significant improvement.

Evaluation

The slogan "The working class are the masters of the country" devolved into a political tool in practice. After the founding of the PRC, the working class never truly held state power; instead, they became a group that was exploited and controlled, with inadequate protection of their rights and living standards falling short of expectations. The wave of unemployment following the Reform and Opening Up further undermined the social status of the working class, creating a stark contrast between this propaganda promise and reality.

From the two examples above, it can be seen that the CCP, under the banner of "workers and peasants," deceived them into joining the revolution. However, after seizing power, they immediately cast workers and peasants onto the garbage heap of history. The CCP propaganda uses a hammer and sickle as its emblem, symbolizing the alliance of workers and peasants. Yet, to this day, the Chinese people have gradually understood its true meaning: the sickle is used to harvest obedient people, the hammer is used to beat disobedient people, and red is the color they use to whitewash their rule.

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3. "Achieve democracy and freedom"

The CCP did indeed use much propaganda promising freedom and democracy in its early days to attract widespread public support. These promises and statements were particularly prominent during the War of Resistance against Japan and the Chinese Civil War, mainly reflected in important policy documents, speeches by leaders, and internal party documents. Here are some representative historical materials and events:

1. The CCP's "Three Great Programs"

• Time: 1940

• Document: "On New Democracy" (Mao Zedong)

• Content: In this essay, Mao Zedong proposed the program of "New Democracy," proclaiming that China would implement "people's democratic dictatorship" and advocating for:

• Universal enjoyment of basic freedoms such as speech, press, assembly, association, and freedom of thought and belief.

• Establishment of a broad democratic alliance for joint governance of the country.

• Denial of one-party rule.

• Subsequent Situation: After the founding of the PRC, "New Democracy" was quickly abandoned, and the CCP established its one-party dictatorship, suppressing democratic rights.

1. The "Common Program"

• Time: September 1949

• Document: "The Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference"

• Content:

• Declared the establishment of a "People's Democratic Republic," guaranteeing people's freedoms of speech, press, assembly, association, and religious belief.

• Established "democratic elections" as the basic method of state governance.

• Promised multi-party cooperation to build a democratic China.

• Subsequent Situation: With the promulgation of the 1954 Constitution, the CCP began to legally establish its one-party dictatorship, and the democratic promises of the "Common Program" were no longer mentioned.

1. Mao Zedong's Public Statements on Democracy

• Time: 1945

• Occasion: Closing speech at the 7th National Congress of the CCP

• Content: Mao Zedong proposed establishing a "democratic system higher than bourgeois democracy" and stated that the CCP welcomed all patriotic individuals to participate in the construction of political power.

• Subsequent Situation: After the founding of the PRC, Mao Zedong turned to totalitarian rule, suppressing any dissenting forces, especially during the Anti-Rightist Movement and the Cultural Revolution, when democracy was completely lost.

1. "Liberation Daily's" Promise of Freedom of Speech in 1941

• Content: The CCP repeatedly published articles in the "Liberation Daily" criticizing the Kuomintang's suppression of freedom of speech, while also promising that after the Communist Party came to power, it would guarantee freedom of the press and publication.

• Subsequent Situation: After the founding of the PRC, all media were placed under the control of the Party, independent media disappeared entirely, and speech was strictly censored.

1. Propaganda in "Xinhua Daily"

• Time: War of Resistance against Japan period (1938-1945)

• Content:

• Repeatedly published articles criticizing the Kuomintang's authoritarianism and calling for the establishment of a free and democratic New China.

• Emphasized the need to guarantee the people's basic rights, including freedom of speech, belief, and election.

• Subsequent Situation: After the founding of the PRC, newspapers and periodicals became propaganda tools for the Party, and critical and independent voices were completely suppressed.

1. The "Three-Thirds System" during the War of Resistance

• Content: The CCP implemented the "Three-Thirds System" in the base areas...

Implementing the “Three-Three System” regime model, claiming:

• One third of power each for the Communist Party, non‑Party progressive elements, and centrists;

• Guaranteeing all sides equal rights to participate in politics in liberated areas.

• Subsequent developments: This policy was only a temporary measure; as the CCP’s influence expanded, other factions were gradually eliminated.

1. The CCP’s commitments during the Chongqing negotiations

• Date: 1945

• Event: The CCP‑KMT Chongqing negotiations

• Content: CCP leaders such as Mao Zedong put forward during the talks:

• Achieve peaceful nation‑building and practice multi‑party cooperation;

• Establish a united government and implement constitutional democracy;

• Recognize the legal status of all parties and groups.

• Subsequent developments: After the outbreak of the civil war, the CCP turned to violent seizure of power, and these promises were no longer mentioned.

1. “Resolution of the CCP Central Committee on Certain Historical Issues” (1945)

• Content: The CCP stated in the document:

• Learn from the Soviet “one‑party dictatorship” and avoid despotism;

• Emphasize building a democratic, people‑centered regime.

• Subsequent developments: After founding the People’s Republic, the CCP fully copied the Soviet system and instituted one‑party rule.

1. CCP support for the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• Date: 1948

• Event: The UN adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• Content: The CCP claimed support for the declaration’s provisions on freedom of speech, religious freedom, and political rights.

• Subsequent developments: After the founding of the PRC, the human‑rights situation continued to deteriorate, completely diverging from the declaration’s liberal democratic principles.

1. Early‑PRC grassroots election promises

• Date: 1949‑1954

• Content: The CCP piloted village‑level democratic elections in some areas, claiming that the electoral scope would be gradually expanded.

• Subsequent developments: Elections became formalities; real power remained in party organizations, and ordinary voters had no voice.

These early CCP promises of freedom and democracy were largely strategies to win popular support and international legitimacy. After seizing power, the promises were swiftly abandoned, replaced by one‑party rule and a highly centralized system. This shift not only contradicted the CCP’s early propaganda but also left many who once fought for the CCP feeling betrayed.

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4. “Unite All Democratic Parties, Build a New China Together”

Before the founding of the People’s Republic, the CCP put forward the slogan “Unite all democratic parties, build a new China together,” promising cooperation with all democratic parties to establish a democratic united government. However, after the PRC was established, this promise was gradually broken, with democratic parties marginalized or even purged, and power fully concentrated in the hands of the CCP. The following are related historical facts and evidence:

1. Background of Proposing Unity of Democratic Parties

• Date: April 30, 1948

• Event: Publication of the “May 1 Slogan”

• The CCP Central Committee issued the “May 1 Slogan,” calling on all democratic parties, social groups, and non‑party individuals nationwide to convene a new CPPCC and establish a united government.

• It urged the CCP to work together with democratic parties to create a “people’s democratic dictatorship” in the new China.

• Impact:

• The slogan received active responses from many democratic parties and non‑party individuals, enhancing the CCP’s political legitimacy and social support.

2. Commitments in the Common Program

• Date: September 1949

• Document: “Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference”

• Stated that the new China is a “people’s democratic state,” and democratic parties and social groups will have a seat in the government;

• Claimed that “democratic parties may operate within the bounds of the law”;

• Promised to safeguard multi‑party cooperation and jointly build the new China.

3. Early Implementation of the Promise

• Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (1949):

• Included democratic parties and non‑party individuals, creating a “multi‑party cooperation” situation.

• In the early PRC, parties such as the China Democratic League, China Democratic National Construction Association, and the Jiusan Society held certain representation in the CPPCC and government.

• Role of Democratic Parties:

• These parties were defined as “participating parties,” ostensibly possessing political participation rights.

4. Facts of Gradual Abandonment of the Promise

(1) Marginalization of Democratic Parties

• Date: Early 1950s

• Fact:

• The CCP progressively weakened the independence of democratic parties, demanding unconditional acceptance of CCP leadership.

• Democratic parties were only allowed to operate within CCP‑designated scopes, effectively becoming CCP subsidiaries.

• Typical Case:

• The China Democratic League faced purges when some members criticized CCP policies, with members being cleansed or even persecuted.

(2) “Anti‑Rightist Campaign”

• Date: 1957

• Event: Anti‑Rightist Campaign

• Mao Zedong, under the pretext of “helping the Party rectify style,” called on democratic parties and intellectuals to offer suggestions to the CCP.

• When suggestions were made, many were labeled “rightists,” subjected to criticism, purges, or labor re‑education.

• Impact:

• Democratic parties and intellectuals fell silent, no longer daring to criticize CCP policies;

• Leaders of the China Democratic League such as Zhang Lan were denounced, and the independence of democratic parties was completely shattered.

(3) First Session of the National People’s Congress

• Date: 1954

• Event: The CCP passed the “Constitution of the People’s Republic of China,” declaring the National People’s Congress as the highest organ of state power.

• Impact:

• The CPPCC was gradually marginalized, and democratic parties lost real power in political consultation.

5. Fates of Individual Democratic Party Figures

Zhang Lan (founder of the China Democratic League)

• Event:

• Zhang Lan was marginalized for voicing dissent on certain CCP policies; in his later years he was coldly ignored and lost actual political influence.

Zhang Bojun (China Democratic League leader)

• Event:

• During the Anti‑Rightist Campaign, Zhang Bojun was labeled a “rightist,” publicly criticized, and his political life ended.

Luo Longji (prominent member of the China Democratic League)

• Event:

• For criticizing CCP policies, Luo Longji was classified as a “rightist,” lost his freedom and suffered persecution.

6. The Substance of “Multi‑Party Cooperation”

• CCP’s definition of “multi‑party cooperation”:

• Democratic parties must accept CCP leadership and cannot compete for power;

• Their functions are limited to assisting the CCP in policy propaganda and implementation, with no independent political role.

• Manifestation:

• Democratic parties became political ornaments for the CCP, used to project a “democratic” image abroad;

• Party members were largely screened by the CCP, possessing no real authority.

7. Historical Evaluation

• Surface promise: By cooperating with democratic parties, the CCP successfully crafted a “multi‑party cooperation” image in the early PRC, gaining broad support.

• Actual betrayal: After the founding of the PRC, the CCP swiftly abandoned the promise, establishing a one‑party dictatorship, marginalizing or even purging democratic parties.

• Scholarly view:

• Some scholars argue that uniting democratic parties was merely a CCP strategy for seizing power, aiming to isolate and defeat the Kuomintang through a united front;

• Democratic parties are described as “vase parties,” i.e., decorative entities lacking real influence.

8. Related Literature and Sources

• “Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference” (1949): The theoretical basis for CCP‑democratic party cooperation.

• “Anti‑Rightist Campaign Archives”: Detailed records of the persecution of democratic parties and intellectuals during the campaign.

• “History of Democratic Parties in New China”: Traces the role and decline of democratic parties in the early PRC.

The CCP’s early slogan “Unite all democratic parties, build a new China together” served to win hearts during political struggle, but after taking power it was quickly abandoned, cementing a one‑party dictatorship. This betrayal profoundly affected China’s political development and led to the formalization and emptiness of democratic parties.

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5. “Overthrow the Warlords, Establish Peace”

The CCP, during the revolutionary period and before taking power, pledged to end China’s long‑standing warlord conflicts and social turmoil, achieving national unification and social peace through revolution. The slogan “Overthrow the Warlords, Establish Peace” was intended to portray the CCP as a “peace‑maker” and to garner popular support.

Historical Background

• Warlord conflicts during the Beiyang Government period (1916-1928): Warlord fragmentation was severe, civil wars frequent, and the social economy was devastated. After the National Government formally unified China in 1928, local power fragmentation remained an issue.

• The CCP's promises and goals:

• Claimed that through revolution it would end local warlord fragmentation and achieve a peaceful, centrally governed state;

• Used this to win popular support for the CCP, especially creating a comparative advantage over the Kuomintang among peasants and the laboring masses.

Reality

1. Revolutionary period (1927-1949): Continuous civil war and conflict

• Chinese Civil War:

• After the first collapse of the first United Front in 1927, the CCP launched armed struggle, beginning a long‑term confrontation;

• After the second collapse of the United Front in 1946, a full‑scale civil war broke out, lasting three years, causing millions of civilian deaths and countless cities and villages destroyed.

• Land Revolution and military fragmentation:

• The CCP mobilized peasants with radical measures such as “hit the landlords, divide the land,” establishing Soviet base areas and engaging in a prolonged struggle with Kuomintang forces;

• This process was accompanied by massive violent actions, including the suppression of landlords and resistors.

2. Early years of the People’s Republic (post‑1949): Violent unification and internal splits

• Suppression of residual forces:

• In the early years of the PRC the CCP carried out a “suppression of counter‑revolutionaries” campaign, eliminating Kuomintang remnants and local separatist forces;

• It is estimated that between 1950 and 1953 about 2 million people were killed in the “counter‑revolutionary suppression,” many of whom were not genuine counter‑revolutionaries but were persecuted for denunciations or unfavorable historical backgrounds.

• Continuation of armed conflict:

• In 1950 the CCP launched a military operation in Tibet, completing the “peaceful liberation” of Tibet, but at a bloody cost;

• Participation in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953 added further casualties abroad and deepened domestic economic difficulties.

• Internal splits and purges:

• Within the CCP, campaigns such as the rectification movement and purges (e.g., the “Anti‑Rightist Campaign”) suppressed dissent inside and outside the Party, leading to social fear and turmoil.

3. Long‑term continuation of social unrest

• The Great Leap Forward and famine (1958-1961): Radical policies caused economic collapse and social chaos; a severe famine swept the nation, resulting in tens of millions of deaths.

• The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976): A decade of upheaval centered on class struggle intensified social division, with violent clashes across urban and rural areas; peace and stability were completely lost.

Contradictions

1. Gap between propaganda and reality

• Propaganda:

• End warlord fragmentation, avoid war, achieve peace and stability;

• Liberate all of China through revolution and build an equal, democratic society.

• Reality:

• The CCP itself expanded its power through armed struggle, directly causing decades of civil war;

• After revolutionary victory it continued to use violent means to eliminate dissent, creating new social turmoil.

2. The “violence begets violence” model

• The CCP launched armed struggle in the name of “liberation,” but after seizing power it still relied on high‑pressure methods to maintain social control;

• Even after the CCP fully controlled the country, internal purges and political campaigns still caused millions of deaths or persecutions.

Historical Evidence

Event 1: Chinese Civil War (1946-1949)

• The war directly caused millions of civilian casualties and tens of millions displaced;

• The CCP won support in the liberation war by “eliminating the landlord class” and “opposing the reactionary Kuomintang,” but in reality caused massive social destruction.

Event 2: Suppression of Counter‑Revolutionaries (1950-1953)

• Goal: Eliminate Kuomintang remnants, local separatist armed groups, and other groups deemed “counter‑revolutionary”;

• Result: Millions of civilians were arrested or executed on real or fabricated charges.

Event 3: Tibet’s “peaceful liberation” (1950)

• The CCP, under the banner of “peaceful liberation,” launched a military operation in Tibet;

• In fact it forced Tibet into central control by force, and the subsequent high‑pressure policies triggered a large‑scale uprising in 1959.

Event 4: Korean War (1950-1953)

• The CCP portrayed it as a “defense of the motherland,” but it was actually a bloody conflict undertaken to consolidate the new regime and gain international standing;

• Massive Chinese soldier casualties further strained the domestic economy.

Event 5: The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

• Ten years of internal struggle caused millions of deaths or victims, and economic and social development nearly stalled;

• While propaganda touted peace, the country fell into unprecedented turmoil.

Historical Assessment

• The cost of peace: The CCP promised to build a peaceful society, but after seizing power through violent revolution it continued to rely on high‑pressure tactics and political purges to maintain rule; peace was never truly achieved.

• Definition of peace: The CCP’s notion of peace was more “regime stability” than “social harmony,” achieved at the expense of human rights and freedoms in favor of centralization.

• Instrumental use of propaganda: “Overthrow warlords and establish peace” was largely a slogan to win mass support; in practice the realization of peace was repeatedly delayed or abandoned.

References

• “A Brief History of the Chinese Revolution” (Compiled by the CCP Central Party History Research Office)

• “The Suppression of Counter‑Revolutionaries and the Founding of the New China” (Yang Kuaisong)

• “The History and Lessons of the Cultural Revolution” (Shen Zhihua)

• “Modern Chinese History” (Chen Xulu)

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6. “Liberate All of China, Equality for All”

During the revolutionary period the CCP promised to “liberate all of China,” aiming to end exploitation and oppression and to build an equal society. Core propaganda included:

• Eliminate the landlord class and bureaucratic‑capitalist class to achieve economic equality;

• Build a socialist state where workers and peasants are masters of the country;

• Guarantee equal rights for the people, including equal opportunities in education, employment, healthcare, and other fields.

However, these promises were not fulfilled after taking power, and social inequality worsened markedly in certain phases.

Historical Background and Implementation Measures

1. Revolutionary period propaganda

• Main slogans:

• “Hit the landlords, divide the land”: promoted economic equality.

• “Turn over the world, become the master”: emphasized peasants and workers breaking free from exploitation.

• “Democratic equality”: pledged rights equality and the elimination of hierarchical differences.

• Attractiveness during the revolutionary period: These slogans attracted the impoverished masses, especially peasants and workers, making them the CCP’s main supporters.

2. Early years of the PRC practice

• Land reform (1949-1953):

• Confiscated landlords’ land and redistributed it to poor peasants.

• Yet “land equality” was short‑lived; rural areas quickly moved into collectivization and People’s Commune stages, re‑collectivizing land and depriving farmers of land ownership.

• Elimination of the exploiting class:

• Through the “Three‑Anti” and “Five‑Anti” campaigns and public‑private partnership policies, the capitalist class was eliminated and bureaucratic capital was limited.

• But this was replaced by a new elite: a class of Communist Party officials gradually formed.

Reality and Social Inequality Issues

1. Formation of a bureaucratic privileged class

• Early privileged emergence:

• After the founding of the PRC in 1949, senior CCP leaders and their families began to enjoy special treatment such as exclusive medical care, transportation, and food supplies;

• “Revolutionary heroes” became a privileged class, creating a clear gap with ordinary citizens.

• Institutionalization of privilege:

• As state building progressed, the interests of the privileged class were solidified through the household‑registration system, cadre benefits, and other forms.

• The gap between officials and ordinary people widened, with the bureaucratic class enjoying greater allocation of social resources.

2. Household‑registration system and urban‑rural dual structure

• Date: 1958, the Regulations on Household Registration were formally implemented.

• Content: Rural and urban household registrations were strictly separated, leading to severe inequality in the distribution of resources:

• Rural residents were excluded from public services such as education, healthcare, and employment;

• Farmers became “second‑class citizens,” even though

After liberation, people remained long constrained by agricultural labor, making social mobility difficult.

3. The Actual Position of the Working Class

• Early propaganda and practice:

• The working class was called the “master of the state,” and factory management rights were ostensibly owned by the workers.

• However, under the planned economy system, workers' wages, benefits, housing, etc., were controlled by the state, and workers lacked real decision‑making power.

• Unemployment wave after state‑owned enterprise reform:

• The restructuring of state‑owned enterprises in the 1990s left millions of workers laid off, losing jobs and social security, and their economic status further deteriorated.

4. Intensification of “Inequality” during the Cultural Revolution

• Period: 1966‑1976.

• Phenomenon:

• Under the banner of “smash the capitalist roaders,” high‑level party officials were purged, but many innocent civilians, intellectuals, and lower‑level cadres became victims of persecution;

• Inequality between cadres’ children (the “red second generation”) and ordinary citizens was pronounced, and the privileged class continued to enjoy hidden privileges.

5. Rural Poverty Issues

• People’s Communeization:

• Farmers were forcibly incorporated into people’s communes during the Great Leap Forward, losing land and production autonomy;

• The great famine of 1959‑1961 caused tens of millions of deaths, making farmers the largest victim group.

• Pre‑reform difficulties:

• Rural areas suffered chronic lack of resource investment, with severe deficiencies in education and healthcare, widening the urban‑rural gap.

Typical Manifestations of Inequality

1. Officials vs. Ordinary Citizens

• Income gap:

• Officials’ salaries, allowances, and benefits far exceed those of ordinary workers;

• Corruption and gray‑income further widen the gap.

• Social resources:

• High‑level officials and their families can preferentially obtain high‑quality education and medical resources.

2. Urban‑Rural Gap

• Income gap:

• Since the founding of the People’s Republic, economic development has remained unbalanced between rural and urban areas;

• After reform and opening, the per‑capita income gap between urban and rural residents further expanded.

• Educational inequality:

• Rural schools are rudimentary, and educational resources lag far behind those in cities.

3. Gender Inequality

• Propaganda vs. reality:

• The CCP early on proclaimed “women hold up half the sky,” emphasizing gender equality;

• Yet women have long been disadvantaged in employment, education, and social status, especially in rural areas.

Historical Evidence

• Inequality during the great famine:

During the 1959‑1961 three‑year famine, privileged groups and urban residents had grain‑ticket guarantees, while rural residents starved to death.

• Class differences in the Cultural Revolution:

“Red Five” families (revolutionary lineage) enjoyed preferential treatment, while “Black Five” groups (landlords, rich peasants, etc.) and their children were suppressed.

• Widening urban‑rural gap after the 1978 reform and opening:

After reform and opening, although the household contract system was introduced in rural areas, the urban‑rural gap persisted;

• After the 1980s, large numbers of rural youth migrated for work, creating “left‑behind children” and “empty‑nest elders.”

• Unemployment wave among state‑owned enterprise workers:

In the 1990s, state‑owned enterprise reforms caused massive layoffs, pushing many workers’ families into poverty.

Summary and Evaluation

• “Equality for all” unfulfilled:

Although the CCP pledged social equality during the revolution and early nation‑building, after taking power the formation of privileged classes, urban‑rural disparities, worker‑farmer gaps, and gender inequality persisted.

• Social stratification solidified:

The privileged class consolidated its interests through institutionalized means, and the situation of ordinary citizens and vulnerable groups saw little fundamental improvement.

• Slogans as tools:

“Liberate all of China, equality for all” served more as a political tool for the CCP to garner mass support rather than a genuine pursuit of equality.

References:

• History of the People’s Republic of China (edited by Jin Chong et al.)

• The Great Leap Forward and the Great Famine Study (Yang Jisheng)

• China’s Income Gap: Analysis of Urban‑Rural, Class, and Gender (Chen Binkai)

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7. “No Exploitation, Everyone Has Food”

Before and after taking power, the CCP promised to achieve through a socialist economic system:

• Eliminate exploitation and ensure social fairness;

• Solve poverty so that everyone can have basic sustenance;

• Fully realize an “allocation according to need” ideal society through people’s communes, planned economy, and other means.

This propaganda attracted massive support from the poor, especially farmers and workers. However, the promise was not fulfilled; its implementation instead led to large‑scale famine and social disaster.

Historical Background and Policy Implementation

1. Land Reform (1949‑1953)

• Propaganda goal: “Strike the landlords, divide the land,” achieving land equalization and eliminating landlord exploitation.

• Reality:

• Land was indeed redistributed to peasants, but soon replaced by the “agricultural collectivization” policy;

• The land peasants obtained was quickly collectivized, making the achievements of land reform short‑lived and limited.

2. Agricultural Collectivization and People’s Communes (1953‑1958)

• Agricultural collectivization:

• Peasants were organized into mutual‑aid teams and agricultural production cooperatives, losing individual land ownership;

• The state purchased grain at extremely low prices from the countryside, extracting resources and lowering peasants’ living standards.

• People’s communes:

• The 1958 people’s commune movement forced peasants into communes, completely stripping them of land and production autonomy;

• Grain production became highly centralized, decoupling individual labor from income and causing a sharp decline in productivity.

3. “Great Leap Forward” (1958‑1961)

• Goal: Rapid industrialization and agricultural modernization, surpassing Western countries and moving toward “communism.”

• Policy errors:

• The “great leap” spirit led to severe falsification of output data, with grassroots cadres inflating grain figures;

• The state intensified grain requisition, leaving peasants with no food;

• Labor was diverted to build irrigation projects and “backyard steel furnaces,” further shrinking agricultural output.

• Consequences: Directly caused the 1959‑1961 “three‑year great famine,” estimated to have caused 15‑45 million deaths.

Reality and Issues

1. The Lost Promise of “No Exploitation”

• Forms of exploitation after collectivization:

• Although the landlord class was eliminated, the state and people’s communes replaced exploiters;

• Peasants’ labor earnings were pooled and often prioritized to meet state quotas, leaving peasants with extremely low living standards.

• Cadre privileges and unfair resource distribution:

• Commune cadres enjoyed privileges, receiving grain and supplies first, while ordinary peasants endured severe hardship.

2. The Collapse of “Everyone Has Food”

• Horrors during the famine:

• Because grain was prioritized for the state, rural areas suffered widespread food shortages;

• Peasants were forced to survive on bark, grass roots, and even soil, with many families losing multiple members to starvation;

• Some regions experienced extreme “cannibalism.”

• Systemic hunger:

• The high‑intensity collectivization and planned economy of the people’s commune stifled individual labor motivation;

• The state ignored actual conditions and continued excessive grain requisition.

3. Chronic Grain Shortages

• During the planned economy:

• Grain was allocated by “grain tickets,” providing urban residents with basic subsistence, but rural grain shortages persisted;

• Rural populations were neglected in public services such as education and healthcare.

• Pre‑reform difficulties:

• Lack of incentive in rural grain production led to low self‑sufficiency;

• Population pressure and resource scarcity intensified poverty and hunger.

Changes After Reform and Opening

1. Household Contract Responsibility System (post‑1978)

• Policy content: Land was contracted to households, allowing peasants to regain production autonomy;

• Effects:

• Peasants’ production enthusiasm surged, and grain output quickly rose;

• The basic food‑security problem in Chinese rural areas was essentially solved.

• Reflection:

• The resolution of food security was not the “no exploitation, everyone has food” promised in early CCP propaganda.

The "People's Commune" system was not realized, but rather relied on the market mechanisms and individual economic freedoms that were gradually restored after the reform and opening-up.

2. Widening Urban-Rural Gap

• Although the problem of basic subsistence was solved, the dual urban-rural economic structure still existed, and the income and living standards of rural residents were significantly lower than those of urban residents.

Historical Evidence

1. The Tragedy of the Great Famine

• Data:

• Yang Jisheng points out in Tombstone that about 36 million people starved to death nationwide during the three-year Great Famine.

• Official Attitude:

• The CCP long denied the scale of the famine, even calling it a "three-year natural disaster," covering up the responsibility of policy mistakes.

2. Problems of the People’s Commune System

• Grain Procurement Policy:

• Communes centralized grain deliveries to the state, leaving farmers’ basic food rations unsecured;

• Overreporting of output led to higher procurement quotas, aggravating the famine.

• Low Production Efficiency:

• Commune members’ labor enthusiasm declined, resulting in prolonged agricultural stagnation.

3. Achievements of Reform and Opening‑up

• Grain Output Growth:

• After the implementation of the household contract responsibility system, China’s grain production continued to rise;

• After the 1980s, rural areas essentially achieved basic subsistence.

• International Comparison:

• After reform and opening‑up, China gradually solved its grain shortage, but this success was unrelated to the system initially promoted by the CCP.

Contradictions

1. Gap Between Ideals and Reality

• The CCP promised to achieve “no exploitation, everyone has food” through socialism, yet early collectivization and planned economy instead caused massive hunger.

2. Root Causes of Institutional Problems

• The People’s Commune and planned economy were the core of the problem;

• Later reforms proved that solving the issues required marketization and individual freedom, which completely contradicted the CCP’s early propaganda.

3. Propaganda as a Tool

• “No exploitation, everyone has food” was an important slogan for the CCP to mobilize the masses, but in practice it was merely a means to seize power and was never truly implemented.

References

• Yang Jisheng, Tombstone: The Great Famine Record

• Zhang Ming, The Story of Chinese Peasants

• Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society

• Mao Zedong, Report on Agricultural Cooperativization (1955)

• CCP Central Committee Party History Research Office, Draft History of the People’s Republic of China

Conclusion “No exploitation, everyone has food” was a key early promise of the CCP, but its policies led to severe consequences, especially during the Great Leap Forward and the People’s Commune period. The real turning point in solving hunger in China occurred after reform and opening‑up, indicating that the CCP’s early propaganda and institutional design were fundamentally flawed.

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8. “National Equality, Unity and Progress”

The CCP’s promises during the revolutionary period and the early years of the People’s Republic:

• All ethnic groups are equal and will jointly build a new China;
• Guarantees for minority languages, religions, cultures, and autonomy;
• Through the system of regional ethnic autonomy, minorities are given ample self‑governance;
• Achieve “unity and progress” among all ethnic groups for common prosperity.

These propaganda goals were aimed at winning minority support and securing control over border regions. However, after the founding of the state, actual policies diverged from these promises, with minority rights being stripped away and even subjected to high‑pressure assimilation.

Historical Background and Policy Implementation

1. Revolutionary‑Era Promises

• Policy Propaganda:

During the revolutionary period, the CCP attracted minority support by promoting “ethnic equality,” especially during the War of Resistance and the Civil War.

• Emphasized building a federal‑type state where all ethnicities are equal.

• Typical Slogans: such as “Help oppressed peoples rise,” “Support ethnic independence,” “Protect religious freedom.”

2. Early PRC Practice

• Regional Ethnic Autonomy:

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Implementation Outline for Regional Ethnic Autonomy (1952) was issued, establishing ethnic autonomous regions, prefectures, and counties;

• Promised that minorities could use their own languages and scripts and manage local affairs.

• Ethnic Identification Campaign:

In the early 1950s, the CCP launched an “ethnic identification” campaign, classifying the entire population into 56 ethnic groups;

• The aim was to strengthen state control and identification of minorities.

3. Changes in Actual Policy

• Centralized Control:

Although the regional ethnic autonomy system was set up, real power remained highly centralized in the central government, rendering minority autonomy largely nominal;

• Local ethnic cadres’ authority was subject to CCP appointments and strict central supervision.

Current Situation and Issues

1. Xinjiang Issue

• Early Policy:

In 1955, the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region was established, ostensibly achieving ethnic autonomy;

• The CCP proclaimed protection of Uyghur language, religion, and culture, but gradually implemented Sinicization policies.

• Repressive Policies:

During the Great Leap Forward (1958) and the Cultural Revolution (1966‑1976), religious sites were closed and traditional culture and faith were suppressed;

• Since 2014, Xinjiang has pursued a “counter‑terrorism and stability maintenance” policy, building massive “re‑education camps” that detain Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities, constituting severe human‑rights violations.

• Cultural Assimilation:

Mandated Mandarin education weakens the status of native languages;

• Traditional cultural and religious activities face strict restrictions.

2. Tibet Issue

• Peaceful Liberation and Repressive Rule:

In 1951, the CCP claimed a “peaceful liberation” while using military force to take control of Tibet;

• In 1959, a large‑scale uprising in Tibet was violently suppressed by the CCP, leading the Dalai Lama to flee to India.

• Religious Oppression:

During the Cultural Revolution, Tibetan monasteries were extensively destroyed and monks were forced to secularize;

• To this day, religious activities are tightly controlled, with places of worship under strict government oversight.

• Cultural Assimilation:

Mandated Mandarin education diminishes the status of the Tibetan language;

• Massive Han migration into Tibet has altered the local social and cultural fabric.

3. Inner Mongolia Issue

• Grassland Policies and Resource Exploitation:

In Inner Mongolia, large‑scale resource extraction under the banner of economic development has damaged the ecological environment;

• Herdsmen have been forcibly relocated, and traditional nomadic lifestyles are gradually disappearing.

• Cultural Suppression:

Mongolian‑language education has been weakened, with Mandarin replacing Mongolian instruction.

4. Cultural Revolution’s Impact on Minorities

• Destruction of Religion and Culture:

During the Cultural Revolution, minority religious beliefs and cultural traditions were labeled “feudal superstition” and were comprehensively crushed;

• Numerous mosques, Buddhist temples, and cultural heritage sites were destroyed.

• Purge of Ethnic Cadres:

Minority cadres and intellectuals were purged, and many regions saw political campaigns targeting minorities.

Major Contradictions and Inequalities

1. Nominal Autonomy vs. Actual Central Control

• Autonomy in minority regions is formalized, while real administrative power is held by centrally appointed Han officials;

• Ethnic policies primarily serve to maintain central political and economic control over minority areas.

2. Economic Development and Resource Exploitation

• Rich resources in minority regions (such as Xinjiang and Tibet) are used to support national economic growth;

• Local residents do not fairly share the benefits of resource development and instead become poorer due to environmental damage and land loss.

3. Forced Sinicization

• Mandarin becomes the sole official language in education and administration, diminishing minority languages;

• The CCP accelerates assimilation through education, migration, and economic measures.

4. Discrimination in Political Movements

• In political movements such as the Cultural Revolution and “anti‑separatism” campaigns, minorities are often targeted for purges and labeled “separatists”;

• In daily life, minorities frequently face discrimination and low social status.

Historical Evidence

1. Xinjiang “Re‑education Camps

• Period: 2014 to present;

• Content:

Large‑scale “re‑education camps” have been established in Xinjiang, detaining Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities.

Ethnic groups;

• Officially called the “Vocational Skills Education Center,” but the international community widely condemns it as a human rights‑violating concentration camp.

• Consequences:

Millions of ethnic minorities are forced into re‑education, families are torn apart, and cultural traditions suffer devastating blows.

2. Religious oppression in Tibet

• Period: 1959 to present;

• Content:

the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) forcibly controls the reincarnation system of Tibetan Buddhist living Buddhas;

• Religious ceremonies are strictly restricted, and religious freedom is merely nominal.

3. Language controversy in Inner Mongolia

• Period: 2020;

• Content:

the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) implements Mandarin education reforms in Inner Mongolia, cutting Mongolian language courses;

• This sparked protests and social discontent among local Mongols, who view it as part of a cultural assimilation policy.

Contradictions and Evaluation

1. Gap between ideals and reality

• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promotes “ethnic equality,” yet actual policies reflect strong centralization and ethnic assimilation tendencies, with long‑standing neglect of minority autonomy.

2. Political repression and cultural extinction

• High‑pressure policies in minority regions have caused cultural destruction and intensified social tensions, leading to strained ethnic relations.

3. Instrumentalization of propaganda

• “Ethnic equality, unity and progress” serves more as a tool to gain international support and domestic cohesion rather than a genuine pursuit of equal rights for minorities.

References

• “Law of the People’s Republic of China on Regional Ethnic Autonomy” (1984)

• Yang Jisheng, Tombstone: The Great Famine Chronicle

• Jiang Yongfei, History and Reality of Regional Ethnic Autonomy

• Amnesty International, Human Rights Report on China’s Minorities

Conclusion

The Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) promise of “ethnic equality, unity and progress” has not been fulfilled since the founding of the state. Minorities have long been oppressed and discriminated against politically, economically, culturally, and religiously. The implementation of high‑pressure policies and cultural assimilation has kept “ethnic equality” at the level of propaganda, never becoming reality.

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9. “Urban‑rural equality, farmers’ emancipation

the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) pledged during the revolutionary period and early state‑building:

• Eliminate the urban‑rural gap and achieve worker‑peasant equality;

• Enable farmers to “turn over a new leaf and become masters,” enjoying the same social rights as urban residents;

• Improve farmers’ living conditions through land reform and socialist construction.

This pledge helped the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) win broad support among farmers. However, after the founding of the state, the urban‑rural dual structure was institutionalized, and farmers were excluded from many public resources and social welfare systems, remaining “second‑class citizens” for a long time.

Historical Background and Policy Implementation

1. Revolutionary‑period promises

• “Turn over a new leaf and become masters” slogan:

• Through the “Strike the Landlords, Distribute the Land” movement, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promised to completely change the rural class exploitation structure, freeing farmers from poverty and oppression.

• Winning farmers’ support:

• During land reform, landlord land was confiscated and redistributed to landless and land‑poor farmers;

• Farmers became the main force of the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) revolution and grassroots power.

2. Early state‑building policies

• Land reform (1949‑1953):

• Changed traditional land ownership relations, briefly granting farmers land ownership;

• However, the gains of land reform were quickly replaced by collectivization and the People’s Commune system.

• Agricultural collectivization (1953‑1958):

• Land was gradually collectivized, and individual farmers’ interests were merged into cooperatives, losing control over their land.

• People’s Commune system (after 1958):

• Rural areas implemented highly centralized collective labor and unified purchase‑sale systems; farmers’ labor output was forcibly requisitioned, and living standards sharply declined.

Current Situation and Issues

1. Hukou system and urban‑rural dual structure

• Establishment of the hukou system (1958):

• The “Household Registration Regulations” divided the entire population into “agricultural hukou” and “non‑agricultural hukou,” strictly limiting rural migration to cities;

• Farmers were fixed in the countryside, unable to enjoy urban education, medical care, employment, and social security benefits.

• Inequitable allocation of urban‑rural resources:

• Urban residents receive state‑provided housing, grain, education, medical subsidies, and other benefits;

• Rural areas lack infrastructure, and education and medical resources are extremely scarce.

2. Industrial‑agricultural “scissors gap”

• Policy background:

• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) used a “scissors gap” policy to extract resources from the countryside to support industrialization.

• Agricultural products were sold to the state at low prices, while industrial products were sold to rural areas at high prices, long‑term depriving farmers of economic benefits.

• Impact:

• Rural economic development stagnated, and farmers’ incomes remained low;

• The wealth gap between cities and countryside continuously widened.

3. Exploitation by the People’s Commune

• Labor exploitation:

• Under the commune system, farmers were organized collectively for labor, disconnecting personal labor output from income;

• Farmers’ basic subsistence was limited by grain rationing, leaving many in extreme poverty.

• Great Leap Forward and famine:

• The “Great Leap Forward” (1959‑1961) caused agricultural production collapse, triggering a nationwide famine that killed tens of millions of farmers from starvation.

4. Backward rural infrastructure

• Educational resource inequality:

• Rural schools are rudimentary, with scarce teachers; many rural children cannot receive quality education;

• Urban residents enjoy priority access to key schools and higher‑education resources.

• Medical resource shortage:

• Rural medical systems remain underdeveloped; barefoot doctors and simple clinics are the main medical means for farmers;

• Cities have comprehensive hospitals and health‑insurance systems.

5. Discrimination against migrant workers

• Migrant‑population issue after reform and opening:

• After 1978, massive rural populations flooded into cities as “migrant workers,” performing low‑pay, high‑intensity jobs;

• Due to hukou restrictions, migrant workers cannot enjoy the education, medical care, and housing benefits of urban residents.

• Social discrimination:

• Migrant workers are marginalized in cities, facing unstable employment, low wages, and lack of social security.

Main Contradictions and Inequalities

1. Urban‑rural income gap

• Data comparison:

• In the 1980s, the urban‑rural income ratio was about 2:1;

• By the 2000s, the gap widened to over 3:1.

• Unfair resource distribution:

• Cities receive the vast majority of fiscal resources and investment, while rural areas are long ignored.

2. Political and social status inequality

• Farmers have been excluded from mainstream national political decision‑making for a long time;

• Rural grassroots organizations lack genuine autonomy, and many local officials exploit farmers for personal gain.

3. Educational and employment opportunity inequality

• Rural children find it difficult to change their fate through education; the huge disparity in urban‑rural educational resources reduces social mobility;

• Migrant workers may work in cities for years but cannot obtain urban hukou, keeping them in low social status.

Historical Evidence

1. Hukou‑induced urban‑rural segregation

• Event:

• After 1958, rural populations were strictly prohibited from moving to cities;

• Even long‑term migrant workers cannot secure urban education and welfare for their children.

• Impact:

• The hukou system fixed farmers in low social positions, institutionalizing urban‑rural division.

2. Deprivation by the industrial‑agricultural scissors gap

• Fact:

• From the 1950s to the 1970s, the state purchased agricultural products at low prices and restricted farmer incomes to fund urban industrialization;

• Farmers’ economic status was further weakened.

3. Devastating impact of the great famine on the countryside

• Data:

• According to Yang Jisheng’s research, 36‑45 million farmers died of starvation during the famine;

• The famine was mainly caused by excessive grain requisition and inflated production reports leading to policy failures.

4. Post‑reform challenges for migrant workers

• Phenomenon:

• Migrant workers generally face employment

Instability, low income, lack of social security and other issues;

• The gap between cities and countryside still has not been substantially narrowed.

Contradictions and Evaluation

1. Gap Between Ideals and Reality

• the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promised to let peasants “turn over a new leaf and become masters,” but after the founding of the nation peasants’ rights were systematically stripped, and urban‑rural equality became an unattainable goal.

2. Institutionalized Inequality

• Household registration system, people’s communes and the industrial‑agricultural “scissors gap” policies have institutionalized urban‑rural differentiation;

• Rural economy improved after the reform and opening up, but the root of unequal urban‑rural resource allocation remains untouched.

3. Propaganda as a Tool

• “Urban‑rural equality, peasants turning over a new leaf” was more a tool for the CCP during the revolutionary period to win peasant support, not a policy goal after taking power.

References

• Yang Jisheng, Tombstone: A Chronicle of the Great Famine

• Fei Xiaotong, From the Soil: The Foundations of Chinese Society

• CCP Central Committee Party History Research Office, Draft History of the People’s Republic of China

• Li Changping, I Speak Honestly to the Premier

• China Rural Development Research Center, Report on China’s Rural Reform and Development

Summary The CCP attracted massive peasant support with “urban‑rural equality, peasants turning over a new leaf,” but actual policies after the founding made peasants a deprived group. Household registration, the industrial‑agricultural scissors gap and unfair urban‑rural resource distribution have kept the gap long‑standing. Peasants remained “second‑class citizens” until after the reform and opening up, and urban‑rural equality remains an unrealized goal.

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10. “Intellectuals Are the Nation’s Wealth”

In the early years of the People’s Republic, the CCP vigorously promoted “intellectuals are the nation’s wealth,” promising:

• Intellectuals would play a key role in building the new China;

• The state would respect and protect the status and rights of intellectuals;

• Intellectuals are the driving force behind scientific progress, cultural prosperity and national modernization.

This propaganda attracted a large number of intellectuals, many of whom actively participated in building the new China. However, during successive political movements after the founding, intellectuals were not protected; instead, they became the main victims of political struggles.

Historical Background and Policy Implementation

1. Early‑PRC Intellectuals Policy

• 1949‑1956: Unity and Transformation Simultaneously:

• the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) classified intellectuals as “part of the working people,” seeking to unite and enlist them for the new China;

• through thought‑reform campaigns, intellectuals were required to accept Marxism and integrate with workers and peasants.

• Key Documents:

• 1951: “Intellectuals’ Thought‑Reform Movement”:

Demanded self‑criticism, abandonment of “bourgeois thoughts”; through studying Marxist theory and participating in labor re‑education, achieve “thought purification.”

• Report on the Intellectuals Issue (1956):

Deng Xiaoping stated that intellectuals are an important force for building socialism and their role must be fully utilized.

Reality and Political‑Movement Persecution

1. Anti‑Rightist Movement (1957)

• Background:

• the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) called on intellectuals to offer opinions to the Party and state, helping “rectify the Party”; intellectuals responded actively with many critical suggestions.

• Shift:

• Mao Zedong suddenly declared these opinions an “attack by right‑wing elements,” and the movement turned to suppress intellectuals.

• Consequences:

• Number Persecuted: about 550,000 labeled “rightists,” most of them intellectuals;

• Many intellectuals were dismissed from public posts, sent down for labor re‑education;

• The intellectual community was severely weakened, silence became mainstream.

2. Cultural Revolution (1966‑1976)

• Intellectuals as Targets of Struggle:

• Mao Zedong launched the “Four Olds” campaign, viewing intellectuals as “representatives of bourgeois culture”;

• Scholars, teachers, writers, artists were labeled “reactionary elements,” subjected to struggle sessions, home raids and persecution.

• Typical Cases:

• Fu Lei Incident: famous translator Fu Lei was publicly denounced; he and his wife later committed suicide;

• Lao She Incident: renowned writer Lao She was beaten and humiliated by Red Guards, ultimately drowning himself in a lake.

• Education System Collapse:

• Universities closed, teaching halted;

• Intellectuals were forced to go to the countryside for “re‑education,” dealing a devastating blow to the scholarly community.

Main Forms of Persecution of Intellectuals

1. Public Struggle Sessions in Political Movements

• Intellectuals were publicly denounced, paraded with caps, and sometimes physically abused;

• Forced to admit “mistakes” and undergo long‑term labor re‑education.

2. Thought Reform and Control

• Thought Reform:

• Intellectuals were required to study Marxist theory and abandon independent thinking;

• Free academic inquiry and independent thought were completely suppressed.

• Political Surveillance:

• Intellectuals’ speech, creation and research were strictly censored; any slight misstep could lead to persecution.

3. Degradation of Social Status

• Intellectuals were labeled “stink‑old nine,” placed at an extremely low social standing;

• Many were transferred to remote areas for manual labor, unable to continue academic work.

Consequences and Impact on the Scholarly Community

1. Generational Gap in the Intellectual Community

• During the Anti‑Rightist Movement and the Cultural Revolution, a large number of talented intellectuals were persecuted to death or suicide;

• The continuity of the scholarly community was broken, causing severe talent loss.

2. Comprehensive Stagnation of Education and Research

• During the Cultural Revolution:

• Universities were closed for years, research institutes were dissolved or left idle;

• Millions of students lost the chance for higher education due to “going to the mountains and the countryside.”

• Result:

• China’s scientific research and technological progress stagnated for a long period, widening the gap with the international community.

3. Long‑Term Social‑Psychological Effects

• Repeated persecution made the intellectual community cautious and silent;

• Free thought and critical spirit were suppressed in academia, affecting the scholarly environment for decades.

Documented Historical Evidence

1. Persecution in the Anti‑Rightist Movement

• Case: Zhang Bojun (dubbed “right‑wing leader”)

• Former chairman of the China Democratic League, Zhang Bojun was labeled a rightist for criticizing the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) policies;

• He suffered prolonged political persecution and eventually died in despair.

• Data:

• Statistics show about 550,000 people were labeled rightists, the majority being teachers, writers, scientists and intellectuals.

2. Disasters of the Cultural Revolution

• Fu Lei’s Death:

• Renowned translator Fu Lei faced continuous political persecution and committed suicide in 1966; Red Guards ransacked his home, humiliated him, and ended his translation career.

• Lao She’s Death:

• In 1966, writer Lao She was beaten and humiliated by Red Guards, leading him to drown himself in a lake, shocking the nation.

• Collapse of Education and Academia:

• Universities were shut down, many professors and scholars were sent to the countryside for manual labor; research and cultural institutions were closed.

Contradictions and Evaluation

1. Divergence Between Propaganda and Reality

• the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) claimed “intellectuals are the nation’s wealth,” but in practice treated intellectuals as “remnants of the bourgeoisie,” repeatedly attacking them;

• Intellectuals became the main victims of successive political movements.

2. Systematic Suppression

• the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) used thought reform and political campaigns to completely strip intellectuals of independence;

• Free academic inquiry and independent thought were seen as threats to Party authority.

3. Long‑Term Damage to Society and Culture

• Ongoing repression of the scholarly community dramatically reduced China’s innovative capacity and cultural creativity;

• Marginalization of intellectuals severely weakened the intellectual support needed for China’s modernization process.

References

• Yang Jisheng, Tombstone: A Chronicle of the Great Famine

• Li Rui, Mao Zedong’s Thirty Years

• Mao Haijian, The History and Consequences of the Cultural Revolution

• Fei Xiaotong, Intellectuals and Chinese Society

• Fu Lei Family Letters (recording the Fu family’s experiences during political movements)

Summary “Intellectuals are the nation’s wealth” was a propaganda tool used by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the early years of the People’s Republic to attract intellectuals.

But this promise was thoroughly betrayed in successive political movements. During the “Anti-Rightist Campaign” and the “Cultural Revolution,” intellectuals suffered devastating blows, and education, scientific research, and cultural endeavors came to a complete standstill. The potential of intellectuals in the construction of New China was not fully realized; instead, they became primary targets of institutional persecution, leading to severe losses in the process of social modernization.

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11. “Friendship First, Competition Second”

• Propaganda Content: Promised peaceful coexistence with neighboring countries, with no territorial disputes.

• Reality: After the CCP came to power, border conflicts erupted with countries like the Soviet Union, India, and Vietnam, indicating that the policies actually implemented were inconsistent with the propaganda.

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12. “Women Hold Up Half the Sky”

Before and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the CCP promoted the slogan “Women Hold Up Half the Sky,” promising:

• To achieve gender equality and eliminate the oppression of women in feudal society;

• To ensure women enjoy equal rights in political, economic, cultural, and family life;

• To liberate women and make them an important force in national construction.

This propaganda attracted many female supporters during the revolutionary period and also drove the formulation of some laws and policies. However, in real life, the improvement of women's status fell far short of the promised commitments, especially in rural and grassroots communities, where gender inequality remained severe.

Historical Background and Policy Implementation

1. Legal Guarantees

• Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China (1950):

• Declared the abolition of the feudal marriage system and promoted freedom and equality in marriage between men and women;

• Explicitly granted women the right to divorce and prohibited arranged marriages, marriage by purchase, and child brides.

• Constitution of the People's Republic of China (1954):

• Clearly stipulated gender equality and guaranteed women's equal rights in political, economic, cultural, educational, and social life.

2. Policy Practices

• Land Reform Period (1949-1953):

• The land distribution policy treated women as independent individuals, and women had the right to receive land;

• Encouraged women to participate in social production and political activities.

• Labor Participation:

• The CCP encouraged women to leave their homes and enter factories, government offices, and schools, emphasizing that “labor is glorious”;

• Rural women were mobilized to participate in agricultural production, becoming the main labor force in the People's Communes.

3. The Slogan “Women Hold Up Half the Sky”

• Time: 1950s-1960s;

• Background:

• The CCP, through extensive propaganda, shaped the image of women participating in national construction in various fields;

• For example, a large number of female role models emerged, such as textile worker Zhao Mengtao and the “Iron Girl” Wang Jinxi.

Reality and Problems

1. Disconnect Between Legal Gender Equality and Reality

• Legal Equality:

• The basic principle of gender equality was established in law;

• Documents such as the Marriage Law and Labor Law protected women's basic rights.

• Inequality in Reality:

• In many rural areas, traditional gender biases and feudal customs remained stubbornly persistent;

• Although women had gained some rights in law, they found it difficult to enjoy them in practice.

2. Inequality for Women in the Workplace

• High Labor Participation Rate, but Low Status:

• The government called for women to enter the workforce, but they were often assigned low-paying, low-status jobs;

• In factories, government offices, and rural areas, women's promotion opportunities were far lower than those for men.

• Entrenchment of Gender Roles:

• Women were considered suitable for “light industry” and “domestic work,” with a very low proportion in technical or leadership positions;

• Women were assigned the “dual roles” of labor and family, bearing excessive burdens.

3. The Plight of Rural Women

• Limited Land Rights:

• Although the land reform clearly stated women's right to land, many women faced discrimination in actual distribution;

• After marriage, women were often excluded due to household registration and land ownership issues, lacking stable land security.

• Preference for Sons:

• Many rural areas still considered sons the primary heirs of the family, and women held a low status within the clan;

• Issues such as the drowning of female infants and gender imbalance persisted.

4. Gender Inequality in the Family

• Continuation of Traditional Roles:

• Although women left home to participate in social labor, families remained male-dominated;

• Women bore a disproportionate amount of domestic and childcare responsibilities, lacking equal decision-making power.

• Domestic Violence:

• Domestic violence was prevalent in some areas, and the rights of female victims lacked effective protection.

5. Challenges After Reform and Opening Up

• Gender Discrimination in Employment:

• After the reform and opening up, the market economy led to a further decline in women's status in the job market;

• Women were considered “unstable labor,” especially those of childbearing age, facing discrimination in hiring and promotion.

• Weakening of Women's Rights:

• The reforms reduced many social welfare benefits for women, such as maternity leave guarantees and childcare services;

• Women were further marginalized in the new economic structure.

Social Impact and Long-Term Issues

1. Inequality in Educational Resources

• Although the enrollment rate for women significantly increased in urban areas, girls' education remained undervalued in many rural areas;

• Girls had high dropout rates and lacked opportunities to change their destiny in adulthood.

2. Low Political Participation

• Nominal Guarantees:

• The CCP once required a certain proportion of women to participate in grassroots politics, but these were often mere formalities;

• The proportion of women in decision-making bodies was extremely low, with power almost entirely held by men.

• Actual Gap:

• Although the proportion of female representatives in the National People's Congress and members of the CPPCC has increased, their representation in core political positions remains minimal.

3. Gender Violence and Discrimination

• Domestic violence, sexual harassment, and workplace gender discrimination remained prevalent in many places;

• Societal attention to women's rights issues was low, and law enforcement was insufficient.

Evidence from Historical Facts

1. Practical Limitations of the Marriage Law

• Cases:

• The Marriage Law explicitly prohibited marriage by purchase, but in rural areas, arranged marriages and dowry transactions persisted for a long time;

• Many women were forced into unequal marital relationships, and their right to divorce was not truly guaranteed.

2. Marginalization of Rural Women

• Data:

• After the reform and opening up, with the implementation of the household contract responsibility system, rural women's land rights were further eroded;

• Surveys show that in many areas, women were denied land allocation rights after marriage, becoming “landless peasants.”

3. Gender Violence and Traditional Concepts

• Facts:

• In some traditional areas, cases of women being abused or even killed due to marital disputes or family problems were not uncommon;

• Victims of domestic violence were mostly women, but legal aid and social support were extremely limited.

4. Gender Inequality in the Workplace

• Phenomenon:

• Women were often among the first to be laid off during the reform of state-owned enterprises;

• Job advertisements explicitly refusing women were common in the 1990s.

Contradictions and Evaluation

1. The Gap Between Ideals and Reality

• The propaganda slogan was “Women Hold Up Half the Sky,” but women's actual social status improved limitedly;

• Women's labor value was not truly translated into improved social status.

2. Insufficiency of Institutional Design

• The law guaranteed gender equality, but effective enforcement mechanisms were lacking;

• Some policies, while seemingly protecting women, actually further entrenched gender roles.

3. Lagging Social Perceptions

• The CCP failed to completely change traditional gender concepts;

• Gender inequality persisted across urban-rural divides and different social strata.

References

• Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China (1950)

• Zhang Lixian, “Chinese Women's Liberation and Modernization”

• Li Mingjie, “Reform and Opening Up and the Challenges of Female Employment”

• Party History Research Office of the CCP Central Committee, “Draft History of the People's Republic of China”

Summary “Women Hold Up Half the Sky” was a CCP slogan promoting gender equality. Although some women's rights were established in law, women in reality still faced...

Heavy inequality. Especially in rural and grassroots societies, gender discrimination is widespread, and women's status has not reached the level promised in propaganda. Urban‑rural gaps, traditional concepts, and insufficient policy implementation further exacerbate this problem.

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13. “Peaceful Liberation of Tibet”

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) claimed in 1951 that, through the “Seventeen-Point Agreement,” it reached an accord with the local Tibetan government and achieved Tibet’s “peaceful liberation.” Official propaganda included:

• Tibet “voluntarily” returning to the motherland’s big family;
• The central government would respect Tibet’s culture, religion, and local autonomy;
• Achieving Tibet’s social development and modernization while protecting the rights of Tibetan people.

In reality, the historical process diverged sharply from the propaganda. The CCP occupied Tibet through military action and subsequently implemented high‑pressure rule and cultural assimilation policies, leading to massive Tibetan exile, and severe damage to Tibetan Buddhist culture and way of life.

Historical Background and Events

1. The CCP’s Strategic Goals for Tibet

• Background: In the early years of the People’s Republic, the CCP explicitly put forward “liberating Tibet,” incorporating it into the territory of the People’s Republic of China;
• Strategic Intent:
  • Consolidate China’s southwestern frontier and prevent Tibet from becoming a bridgehead for foreign powers;
  • Control Tibet’s abundant resources and strategic corridors.

2. Military Actions and the “Peaceful Liberation”

• 1950: “Chamdo Campaign”:
  • CCP forces entered eastern Tibet and launched an offensive against Tibetan troops;
  • In the Chamdo Campaign, local Tibetan armed forces were quickly defeated, with thousands of Tibetan soldiers killed or captured.
• 1951: “Agreement between the Central People’s Government and the Local Tibetan Government on the Method of Peaceful Liberation of Tibet” (the “Seventeen‑Point Agreement”):
  • The CCP forced the local Tibetan government to sign the agreement under military threat;
  • Main contents of the agreement included:
    • Tibet acknowledges China’s sovereignty;
    • The central government promises not to change Tibet’s existing political system and religious freedom;
    • The central government assumes responsibility for Tibet’s national defense construction.

3. High‑Pressure Rule and Resistance

• Gradual Tightening of Central Policies:
  • The CCP imposed military control over Tibet and gradually weakened the power of local governments and monasteries;
  • Traditional Tibetan social authorities (such as nobles and religious leaders) gradually lost influence.
• 1959: “Lhasa Uprising”:
  • Tibetan people launched a large‑scale resistance due to dissatisfaction with CCP rule and religious oppression;
  • The uprising was suppressed by the CCP, resulting in massive Tibetan casualties and the Dalai Lama’s exile to India.

Current Situation and Issues

1. Destruction of Religion and Culture

• Comprehensive Destruction During the Cultural Revolution:
  • During the 1966‑1976 Cultural Revolution, religious activities in Tibet were completely banned;
  • Over 6,000 monasteries were destroyed, monks were forced to secularize, and religious artifacts were looted or destroyed.
• Control of Religious Activities:
  • After the Cultural Revolution, religious activities partially resumed but remained under strict supervision;
  • The reincarnation system of living Buddhas is controlled by the CCP, and major religious ceremonies require government approval.

2. Suppression of Tibetan Buddhism

• Marginalization of Religion:
  • Tibetan monasteries were placed under government administration and religious freedom was restricted;
  • Monks are required to undergo patriotism education and swear allegiance to the CCP.
• Panchen Lama Incident:
  • In 1995, the CCP forcibly designated a candidate for the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama, the second most important figure in Tibetan Buddhism, provoking strong opposition from Tibetans.

3. Changes to Tibetan Lifestyle

• Forced Assimilation:
  • The CCP accelerates assimilation of Tibetan culture through Mandarin education and economic policies;
  • The status of the Tibetan language in school education is diminished, and younger generations gradually lose mastery of traditional culture.
• Influx of Han Migrants:
  • Large numbers of Han migrants move into Tibet, altering the local demographic structure;
  • Tibetan people are at a disadvantage in employment and economic activities.

4. Tibetan Exile and Resistance

• Formation of Exile Communities:
  • After 1959, more than 120,000 Tibetans fled to India, Nepal, and other countries;
  • Exiled Tibetans established a government-in-exile centered on the Dalai Lama, continuing to seek autonomy and cultural protection for Tibet.
• Ongoing Protests and Repression:
  • In 2008, Lhasa saw another large‑scale protest demanding religious freedom and autonomy;
  • The CCP responded with harsh repression, resulting in multiple deaths and arrests.

Main Contradictions and Inequalities

1. Deprivation of Political Rights

• Nominal Autonomy in Name Only:
  • Although the Tibet Autonomous Region formally enjoys autonomy, in practice it is controlled by Han officials appointed by the CCP;
  • Tibetan officials within the local leadership are largely cadres trained by the CCP, with limited concern for Tibetan interests.

2. Unequal Economic Development

• Resource Exploitation:
  • The CCP has undertaken large‑scale development of Tibet’s mineral, hydro‑electric, and other resources, while local Tibetans benefit very little;
  • Economic policies primarily serve the central government and Han migrants.
• Destruction of Traditional Economy:
  • Traditional pastoral and agricultural economies have been replaced by modernization and market mechanisms, leaving many without livelihoods.

3. Social and Cultural Inequality

• Marginalization of Language Education:
  • The use of the Tibetan language is increasingly restricted, especially in education and official settings;
  • Tibetan culture is gradually losing its dominant position.
• Restrictions on Religious Life:
  • The CCP treats Tibetan Buddhism as a political threat and closely monitors its activities.

Evidence Supporting Historical Facts

1. Controversy Over the “Seventeen‑Point Agreement”

• Forced Signing:
  • Tibetan representatives signed the agreement without authorization from the Dalai Lama;
  • The exile government considers the agreement invalid under international law.
• Violation of Terms:
  • The CCP pledged not to alter Tibet’s religion and culture, yet implemented comprehensive control and assimilation.

2. 1959 “Lhasa Uprising”

• Event:
  • Tibetan people organized resistance due to dissatisfaction with CCP rule; the uprising spread across Lhasa and surrounding areas;
  • The uprising was suppressed, with approximately 87,000 Tibetans killed or arrested.
• Consequences:
  • The Dalai Lama fled to India, and the Tibetan government was completely replaced.

3. Destruction of Tibetan Culture

• During the Cultural Revolution:
  • Traditional Tibetan culture and religious facilities were completely destroyed;
  • Religious activities were banned, monks secularized, and traditional culture was nearly halted.

4. Panchen Lama Incident

• Event:
  • The CCP refused to recognize the Panchen Lama designated by the Dalai Lama and appointed its own “legitimate” candidate;
  • The Panchen Lama chosen by the Dalai Lama remains missing, and his fate has become a focus of international human‑rights concern.

Contradictions and Assessment

1. Gap Between Ideals and Reality

• The CCP’s propaganda of a “peaceful liberation” contrasts with its military occupation of Tibet and failure to fulfill promises to protect Tibetan culture and religion;
• Tibetans actually live under domination and assimilation.

2. Long‑Term High‑Pressure Policies

• The CCP’s rule over Tibet relies on coercive measures and high‑pressure tactics, leading to persistent ethnic tension;
• The main goal of policies is control and assimilation rather than genuine equality and respect.

3. International Criticism

• The international community widely regards the CCP’s policies in Tibet as serious human‑rights violations;
• The Dalai Lama advocates a “middle way” for genuine Tibetan autonomy, which the CCP has not accepted.

References

• History and Current Situation of Tibet (Mao Haijian)
• Historical texts and analysis of the “Seventeen‑Point Agreement”
• He Qinglian, Tibet During the Cultural Revolution
• Dalai Lama, My Tibet Story
• Amnesty International, China Tibet Human Rights Report

Summary “Peaceful Liberation of Tibet” is a slogan used by the CCP to justify its occupation of Tibet, but in practice the CCP seized Tibet through military action, then imposed high‑pressure policies, cultural assimilation, and religious repression, causing massive Tibetan exile and ongoing ethnic tension. The CCP failed to fulfill its promise to protect Tibetan culture and religion; the “peaceful liberation” starkly contrasts with its actual actions.

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14. “Internationalist Aid”

the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proposed the slogan “internationalist assistance” after the founding of the country, claiming:

• Providing selfless assistance to developing countries to help them break free from colonial rule and achieve economic independence;
• Supporting the national liberation movements of Third World countries and advancing the global anti‑imperialist, anti‑colonial struggle;
• Reflecting China’s “internationalist spirit” and “socialist brotherly friendship”.

This propaganda shaped the image of the CCP in the international community as generous and just. However, the reality shows that these aids were more about exporting ideology and expanding the CCP’s political and geopolitical influence in Third World countries, rather than truly selfless actions. The massive outflow of resources also had negative impacts on the domestic economy and people’s lives.

Historical Background and Assistance Policies

1. Context of the Proposal

• Cold War pattern:

• In the struggle with the Soviet Union for leadership of the international communist movement, the CCP turned to Third World countries, seeking support through assistance;

• Supporting national liberation movements in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to counter the United States’ capitalist bloc and Soviet influence.

• Ideological propaganda:

• Assistance was packaged as an “internationalist responsibility”, aiming to showcase the CCP’s leadership position and the superiority of socialism.

2. Main Forms of Assistance

• Economic assistance:

• Providing large‑scale grant funds, low‑interest loans, and infrastructure construction projects;

• Exporting technologies such as farmland irrigation, water‑conservation engineering, and industrial facilities.

• Military assistance:

• Supplying weapons, training, and funds to national liberation movements and revolutionary armed forces in the Third World;

• Supporting the establishment and consolidation of communist or socialist regimes.

• Cultural assistance:

• Spreading CCP ideology through education, cultural exchanges, and propaganda institutions (such as the predecessor of the Confucius Institutes);

• Receiving foreign students and sending experts and technicians to developing countries.

Reality and Issues

1. Motives Behind Resource Export

• Exporting ideology:

• Assistance projects often carried explicit political conditions, requiring recipient states to accept the CCP’s ideology or align with it;

• Many aids were not purely economic cooperation but tools of political control.

• Expanding geopolitical influence:

• Using assistance to win support in the United Nations and other international organizations (e.g., “African votes”);

• Establishing a sphere of influence in the Third World to counter the West and the Soviet Union.

2. Economic Cost of Assistance

• Domestic economic pressure:

• China in the 1950‑1970s was still an extremely underdeveloped economy, yet it bore huge assistance expenditures;

• Assistance projects weakened domestic resource supply, leading to material shortages and hardship for the population.

• Inefficiency and waste:

• Many projects failed due to poor management and unreasonable planning;

• Some recipient countries did not achieve the expected development after receiving aid and even fell into debt crises.

3. Negative Impacts of Assistance

• Domestic discontent:

• During periods of economic difficulty in China, massive resource export sparked strong public resentment;

• Complaints such as “We can’t even feed ourselves, yet we have to support foreigners” were widespread.

• Recipient‑country resentment:

• Some recipients were dissatisfied with the CCP’s political conditions and ideological export;

• Failures or management problems of assistance projects intensified bilateral tensions.

Typical Cases

1. Assistance to North Korea

• Period: 1950‑1953, during the Korean War;

• Content: Providing large amounts of military supplies, funds, and manpower support;

• Consequences:

• China suffered huge losses during the war, and war expenditures severely burdened the domestic economy;

• North Korea became an ally of the CCP, but continuously demanded economic assistance.

2. Assistance to Vietnam

• Period: 1950s to 1970s;

• Content:

• Providing massive aid to Vietnam’s anti‑French and anti‑American wars, including weapons, food, funds, and military advisers;

• Consequences:

• Domestic economy was severely weakened;

• After the war, China‑Vietnam relations deteriorated, Vietnam turned to the Soviet bloc, and the aid’s effectiveness was limited.

3. Assistance to Africa

• Tanzania‑Zambia Railway Project (Tanzania‑Zambia Railway):

• Period: 1970s;

• Content: China invested in building Africa’s longest railway, providing technology, funds, and labor;

• Consequences:

• Railway construction consumed huge capital, burdening China’s economy;

• After operation, the railway yielded low returns and did not significantly improve the local economy.

4. Assistance to Albania

• Period: 1950‑1970s;

• Content: The CCP regarded Albania as a “hard‑line ally” of the socialist camp, providing large‑scale economic and military assistance;

• Consequences:

• The scale of assistance far exceeded the actual needs of China‑Albania relations;

• After the China‑Albania split, the assistance resources were almost wasted.

Contradictions and Controversies

1. Gap Between Propaganda and Reality

• The CCP propagates “internationalist assistance” as selfless, but in practice it carries clear political objectives;
• Assistance often aims to export ideology and expand geopolitical influence rather than genuinely help recipient development.

2. Drain on the Domestic Economy

• Assistance consumed already limited domestic resources, aggravating economic hardship;
• During the Great Leap Forward and the three‑year natural disasters, tens of millions of Chinese starved to death, yet assistance continued.

3. Limited Effectiveness of Assistance

• Many projects failed due to recipient‑country management issues or CCP policy mistakes;
• Assistance did not markedly improve the economic situation of recipients, and instead led to debt problems and conflicts.

Historical Evidence

1. Assistance and Domestic Economic Hardship

• During the Great Leap Forward (1958‑1961):

• China fell into a severe economic crisis and famine, yet continued foreign assistance;

• Domestic public dissatisfaction was widespread, believing the government sacrificed the interests of its own people.

2. Political Conditions of Assistance

• Albania assistance:

• Aid required Albania to fully cooperate with the CCP’s international propaganda strategy;

• Once relations with China broke, assistance stopped immediately.

3. Follow‑up Issues of the Tanzania‑Zambia Railway

• Construction cost was massive, but operational efficiency was low;
• Local economic development fell short of expectations, and China’s assistance goals were not fully achieved.

Assessment and Conclusion

1. Propaganda Tool

• “Internationalist assistance” was largely a propaganda tool for the CCP to gain international influence;
• The goal of assistance was ideological export, not pure economic cooperation or altruistic aid.

2. Negative Impact on the Home Front

• Massive assistance placed a severe burden on an economically backward China;
• Living standards of the domestic population declined, and social discontent increased.

3. Complex Impact on Recipient Countries

• Some assistance did promote infrastructure construction in recipient states, but many projects failed due to political interference;
• Recipients often doubted the CCP’s motives and sometimes developed resentment.

References

• “History of the People’s Republic of China’s Diplomacy” (Central Committee Party History Research Office)

• “Tanzania‑Zambia Railway: A Bond of China‑Africa Friendship”

• Li Danhui, “China‑Soviet Relations and the International Communist Movement”

• International Relations Scholars, “China’s Foreign Aid Strategy”

Summary “Internationalist assistance” was a key diplomatic strategy of the CCP during the Cold War, with a huge gap between its propaganda and actual outcomes. The main purpose of the aid was to expand the CCP’s international influence and ideological export, not selfless development assistance. This policy imposed heavy costs on China’s economy and people, and also generated contradictions and disputes in recipient countries.

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15. “Party‑internal Democracy”

“Party‑internal democracy” is an important slogan put forward by the Chinese Communist Party, aiming to emphasize the practice of democratic centralism within the Party, that is, concentrating unified decision‑making on the basis of fully exercising democracy.

• Core idea: Party members enjoy full speaking rights, can participate in discussing Party affairs and supervise leadership.

• *Propaganda goal

*: Shaping the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) as an open, democratic organization, enhancing party members' sense of identification and loyalty to the party.

Reality

Although “intra‑party democracy” is promoted as a basic principle of the CCP, in practice intra‑party democracy has long been limited, resulting in a highly centralized political ecology.

• Highly centralized leadership system

• Power concentrated at the top: Decision‑making authority of the CCP is concentrated in the highest levels, namely the Central Committee, the Politburo and its Standing Committee. Ordinary members have virtually no direct power to participate in major decisions.

• Organizational discipline suppresses diverse voices: The party’s “democratic centralism” is manifested more as “centralization” than “democracy,” meaning subordinates must unconditionally obey superiors. Any questioning of superiors or top‑level decisions may be seen as disciplinary sabotage.

• Restricted expression of opinions

• Ordinary members lack a voice: Members only have opportunities to voice opinions in specific, tightly controlled settings, and these opinions usually do not affect final decisions.

• Criticism and supervision are limited: Intra‑party criticism and self‑criticism are often formalities; genuine effective oversight is virtually nonexistent, especially regarding senior leadership.

• Power struggles replace democratic discussion

• Internal struggles: Party affairs are often dominated by a minority of factions, and power struggles frequently replace democratic discussion, becoming a major driver of decision‑making.

• Suppression of dissent: Any voice or action that attempts to challenge the existing power structure may be labeled “anti‑party behavior” and met with severe crackdown.

• Closed nature of major decisions

• Black‑box operations: Major decisions within the party are usually made in closed‑door meetings of senior leaders, leaving ordinary members and the public unaware of the decision‑making process.

• Lack of transparency: Under the veneer of intra‑party democracy, the reality is a closed power‑operating model, with major policies directly decided by senior leaders and passively implemented at the grassroots.

Assessment

“Intra‑party democracy” in practice is more a political slogan than a guiding principle for actual operation. Ordinary members’ democratic rights are heavily curtailed, and decision‑making power is monopolized by a few senior leaders. This formalistic “democracy” not only fails to achieve healthy interaction between grassroots and senior levels, but also exacerbates internal inequality and opacity, creating a stark contrast between the promise and reality.

Summary

Many slogans put forward during the CCP’s revolutionary period were highly appealing at the time, helping it garner massive popular support. However, after taking power, these promises were broken one by one, revealing that their essence was a political tool used to seize power.